Unlocking Entrepreneurial Spirit: Students' Views on University Support for Business Ventures

Lukasz Cywinski; Tomasz Skica; Aleksander Hancock

doi:10.23762/FSO_VOL13_NO4_3

Published : 2026-01-15

Vol. 13 No. 4 (2025)

Unlocking Entrepreneurial Spirit: Students' Views on University Support for Business Ventures

Lukasz Cywinski

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2920-3509

Tomasz Skica

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5620-610X

Aleksander Hancock

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2293-4379

DOI: https://doi.org/10.23762/FSO_VOL13_NO4_3

Abstract

Despite existing research on student entrepreneurial potential, opportunities for further exploration persist. On the one hand, this paper is part of the current research on student entrepreneurship. On the other hand, the article attempts to provide an answer to the question of how entrepreneurial potential is shaped in the cross-section of different fields of study, in relation to Polish- and English-language studies as well as full-time and part-time students. The added value of this article is the development of a fully proprietary questionnaire form calibrated both in terms of its scale and psychometric properties. The results reveal the entrepreneurial potential of the surveyed students and show how it varies by field and mode of study, as well as between Polish- and English-language students. The study also offers recommendations for university policies to better support and promote student entrepreneurship.

Keywords:

students’ entrepreneurial potential, entrepreneurship dimensions, entrepreneurship education.

Details

References

Statistics

Authors

Download files

pdf

Citation rules

Cywinski, L., Skica, T., & Hancock, A. (2026). Unlocking Entrepreneurial Spirit: Students’ Views on University Support for Business Ventures. Forum Scientiae Oeconomia, 13(4), 50–81. https://doi.org/10.23762/FSO_VOL13_NO4_3

Altmetric indicators

Cited by / Share

Licence

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

References

Alhassan, A., Ali, N. A., & Ali, H. I. H. (2021). EFL students’ challenges in English-medium business programmes: Perspectives from students and content teachers. Cogent Education, 8(1), Article 1888671. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2021.1888671.

Annisa, D. N., Tentama, F., & Bashori, K. (2021). The role of family support and internal locus of control in entrepreneurial intention of vocational high school students. International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education, 10(2), 381–388. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijere.v10i2.20934.

Athayde, R. (2009). Measuring enterprise potential in young people. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 33(2), 481–500. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2009.00300.x.

Baron, R. A. (1998). Cognitive mechanisms in entrepreneurship: Why and when entrepreneurs think differently than other people. Journal of Business Venturing, 13(4), 275–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-9026(97)00031-1.

Baron, R. A. (2007). Behavioral and cognitive factors in entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurs as the active element in new venture creation. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 1(1-2), 167–182. https://doi.org/10.1002/sej.12.

Batz Liñeiro, A., Romero Ochoa, J. A., & Montes de la Barrera, J. (2024). Exploring entrepreneurial intentions and motivations: A comparative analysis of opportunity-driven and necessity-driven entrepreneurs. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 13(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-024-00366-8

Bela, L. R., Riani, A. L., & Indriayu, M. (2021). The effect of entrepreneurial potential on intention students in universities. IOSR Journal of Economics and Finance, 12(4), 30–34. https://doi.org/10.9790/5933-1204023034.

Berglund, H., & Wennberg, K. (2006). Creativity among entrepreneurship students: Comparing engineering and business education. International Journal of Continuing Engineering Education and Life Long Learning, 16(5), 366–379. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJCEELL.2006.010959.

Botezat, E. A., & Borza, A. F. (2016). Exploring entrepreneurial potential among students. Analele Universității din Oradea-Științe Economice, 15(2), 488–496.

Brandstätter, H. (2011). Personality aspects of entrepreneurship: A look at five meta-analyses. Personality and Individual Differences, 51(3), 222–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.07.007.

Brindley, C. (2005). Barriers to women achieving their entrepreneurial potential: Women and risk. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 11(2), 144–161. https://doi.org/10.1108/13552550510590554.

Brockhaus Sr, R. H. (1980). Risk taking propensity of entrepreneurs. Academy of Management Journal, 23(3), 509–520. https://doi.org/10.5465/255515.

Caird, S. (1991). Testing enterprising tendency in occupational groups. British Journal of Management, 2(4), 177–186. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.1991.tb00025.x.

Cassey, P., Heathcote, A., & Brown, S. D. (2014). Brain and behavior in decision-making. PLoS Computational Biology, 10(7), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003700.

Chen, C. C., Greene, P. G., & Crick, A. (1998). Does entrepreneurial self-efficacy distinguish entrepreneurs from managers? Journal of Business Venturing, 13(4), 295–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-9026(97)00029-3.

Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16(3), 297–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555.

Curral, L., Santos, S. C., & Caetano, A. (2013). Theoretical foundations on the entrepreneurial potential. Amity Business Journal, 2, 1–11.

Dhas, D., & Balaji, K. C. (2023). Factors of entrepreneurship potentiality and their impact on entrepreneurial intention with mediating effect of self-efficacy. Humanities And Social Science Studies Peer-Reviewed, Bi-Annual, Interdisciplinary UGC Care List Journal, 12(1), 135–146.

Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750.

Dohmen, T., Quercia, S., & Willrodt, J. (2023). On the psychology of the relation between optimism and risk taking. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 67, 193–214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11166-023-09409-z.

Elliot, A. J., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1994). Goal setting, achievement orientation, and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(5), 968–980. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.66.5.968.

Eysenck, H. J. (1983). The roots of creativity: Cognitive ability or personality trait? Roeper Review, 5(4), 10–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/02783198309552714.

Fayolle, A., & Gailly, B. (2015). The impact of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial attitudes and intention: Hysteresis and persistence. Journal of Small Business Management, 53(1), 75–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12065.

Fillis, I. A. N., & Rentschler, R. (2010). The role of creativity in entrepreneurship. Journal of Enterprising Culture, 18(01), 49–81. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0218495810000501.

Franco, M., Haase, H., & Lautenschläger, A. (2010). Students' entrepreneurial intentions: An inter‐regional comparison. Education+ Training, 52(4), 260–275. https://doi.org/10.1108/00400911011050945.

Galloway, L., Kelly, S., & Keogh, W. (2006). Identifying entrepreneurial potential in students. National Council for Graduate Entrepreneurship Working Paper, 6, 1–20.

Gerry, C., Marques, C. S., & Nogueira, F. (2008). Tracking student entrepreneurial potential: Personal attributes and the propensity for business start-ups after graduation in a Portuguese university. Problems and Perspectives in Management, 6(4), 45–53.

Ghanem, B. (2020). The impact of promoting the concept of entrepreneurship in education colleges of different disciplines on entrepreneurial orientation. International Journal of Arts and Social Science, 3(3), 26–37.

Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. New York: Anchor Books.

González-Tejero, C. B., Ulrich, K., & Carrilero, A. (2022). The entrepreneurial motivation, Covid-19, and the new normal. Entrepreneurial Business and Economics Review, 10(2), 205–217. https://doi.org/10.15678/EBER.2022.100212.

Harada, N. (2005). Potential entrepreneurship in Japan. Small Business Economics, 25, 293–304. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-004-6464-1.

Hmieleski, K. M., & Baron, R. A. (2009). Entrepreneurs’ optimism and the influence of business education on entrepreneurial intentions. Academy of Management Journal, 52(3), 473–488. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2009.41330755.

Ho, Y. P., Low, P. C., & Wong, P. K. (2014). Do university entrepreneurship programs influence students’ entrepreneurial behavior? An empirical analysis of university students in Singapore. In Innovative pathways for university entrepreneurship in the 21st Century (Vol. 24, pp. 65–87). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1048-473620140000024003.

Holienka, M., Mrva, M., & Marcin, P. (2013). Role of family entrepreneurial role-models in determining students’ preferences towards entrepreneurship. In ICERI2013 Proceedings (pp. 3722–3730). IATED.

Hollenbeck, J. R., & Klein, H. J. (1987). Goal commitment and the goal-setting process: Problems, prospects, and proposals for future research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(2), 212–220. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.72.2.212.

Hsiung, T. (2018). Satisfaction with entrepreneurial education and entrepreneurial intention: The moderating role of internal locus of control. International Journal of Education and Research, 6(4), 139–146.

Ibicioglu, H., Baysal, H., & Ozkul, A. S. (2008). The role of high education in entrepreneurship training in respect of transition economies Albania sample. In First International Conference on Management and Economics (Vol. 1, pp. 91–108).

Jagacinski, C. M., Kumar, S., & Kokkinou, I. (2008). Challenge seeking: The relationship of achievement goals to choice of task difficulty level in ego-involving and neutral conditions. Motivation and Emotion, 32, 310–322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-008-9103-3.

Jayawarna, D., Oswald, J., & Macpherson, A. (2014). Entrepreneurial potential: The role of human and cultural capitals. International Small Business Journal, 32(8), 918–943. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242614525795.

Joshi, A., Kale, S., Chandel, S., & Pal, D. K. (2015). Likert scale: Explored and explained. British Journal of Applied Science & Technology, 7(4), 396–403. https://doi.org/10.9734/BJAST/2015/14975.

Kirzner, I. M. (2015). Competition and entrepreneurship. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Klandt, H., & Volkmann, C. (2006). Development and prospects of academic entrepreneurship education in Germany. Higher Education in Europe, 31(2), 195–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/03797720600940880.

Klimkowska, K., & Klimkowski, K. (2020). Entrepreneurial potential of students graduating from translation studies. HERMES-Journal of Language and Communication in Business, 60, 13–27. https://doi.org/10.7146/hjlcb.v60i0.121308.

Klinkosz, W., & Sękowski, A. (2006). H. Schulera i M. Prochaski polska wersja Inwentarza Motywacji Osiągnięć–Leistungsmotivationsinventar (LMI). Czasopismo Psychologiczne, 12(2), 253–264.

Kolb, D. A. (2014). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. New York: Prentice Hall.

Kosharnaya, G. B., Yurasov, I. A., Korzh, N. V., Karimova, L. F., Tarkhanova, E. S., & Danilova, E. A. (2019). Factors of students’ entrepreneurial potential development in Russia. On the example of the Penza region. Revista Espacios, 40(23). https://www.revistaespacios.com/a19v40n23/19402319.html.

Krueger Jr, N. F., & Brazeal, D. V. (1994). Entrepreneurial potential and potential entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 18(3), 91–104. https://doi.org/10.1177/104225879401800307.

Kurdyś-Kujawska, A., & Wojtkowska, A. (2023). To be or not to be an entrepreneur: What motivates and what limits students' entrepreneurial initiatives? Scientific Papers of Silesian University of Technology. Organization & Management, 188, 259–278. http://dx.doi.org/10.29119/1641-3466.2023.188.15.

Küttim, M., Kallaste, M., Venesaar, U., & Kiis, A. (2014). Entrepreneurship education at university level and students’ entrepreneurial intentions. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 110, 658–668. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.910.

Lee, S. M., Chang, D., & Lim, S. B. (2005). Impact of entrepreneurship education: A comparative study of the US and Korea. The International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 1, 27–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-005-6674-2.

Liñán, F., & Fayolle, A. (2015). A systematic literature review on entrepreneurial intentions: Citation, thematic analyses, and research agenda. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 11, 907–933. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-015-0356-5.

Liñán, F., Santos, F. J., & Fernández, J. (2011). The influence of perceptions on potential entrepreneurs. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 7, 373–390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-011-0199-7.

Liu, Q., & Yao-Ping Peng, M. (2025). Exploring factors influencing university students’ entrepreneurial intentions: The role of attitudes, beliefs, and environmental support. PLoS ONE, 20(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316392.

Luthans, F. (2002). The need for and meaning of positive organizational behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, 23(6), 695–706. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.165.

Lyons, R., Lynn, T., & Mac an Bhaird, C. (2015). Individual level assessment in entrepreneurship education: An investigation of theories and techniques. Journal of Entrepreneurship Education, 18(1), 136–156.

Martins, E., & Martins, N. (2002). An organisational culture model to promote creativity and innovation. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 28(4), 58–65. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v28i4.71.

Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56(3), 227–238. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.56.3.227.

McClelland, D. C. (1961). The Achieving Society. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand. https://doi.org/10.1037/14359-000.

Menshikov, V., Kokina, I., & Ruza, O. (2021). The entrepreneurial potential of Latvian students: The role of the university environment. Entrepreneurship and Sustainability Issues, 9(1), 502–518. https://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2021.9.1(31).

Mitrovic Veljkovic, S., Maric, M., Subotic, M., Dudic, B., & Greguš, M. (2019). Family entrepreneurship and personal career preferences as the factors of differences in the development of entrepreneurial potential of students. Sustainability, 11(20), Article 5693. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11205693.

Mueller, S. L. (2004). Gender gaps in potential for entrepreneurship across countries and cultures. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 9(3), 199–220.

Mueller, S. L., & Thomas, A. S. (2001). Culture and entrepreneurial potential: A nine country study of locus of control and innovativeness. Journal of Business Venturing, 16(1), 51–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-9026(99)00039-7.

Nabi, G., & Holden, R. (2008). Graduate entrepreneurship: Intentions, education and training. Education+ Training, 50(7), 545–551. https://doi.org/10.1108/00400910810909018.

Nguyen, T. V., Bryant, S. E., Rose, J., Tseng, C. H., & Kapasuwan, S. (2009). Cultural values, market institutions, and entrepreneurship potential: A comparative study of the United States, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 14(01), 21–37. https://doi.org/10.1142/S1084946709001120.

Norhaidah Abu Haris, M. A., & Abu Talib Othman, F. A. R. (2017). Exploring the entrepreneurial intention among information technology students. Information Technology Journal, 15(4), 116–122. https://doi.org/10.3923/itj.2016.116.122.

Ogunsade, A. I., Obembe, D., Woldesenbet, K., & Kolade, S. (2021). Entrepreneurial attitudes among university students: The role of institutional environments and cultural norms. Entrepreneurship Education, 4(2), 169–190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41959-021-00050-y.

Palimąka, K., & Rodzinka, J. (2018). Students’ attitudes towards starting a business, on the example of students at the University of Information Technology and Management in Rzeszów (Poland). Financial Internet Quarterly, 14(4), 90–103. https://doi.org/10.2478/fiqf-2018-0030.

Palmer, M. (1971). The application of psychological testing to entrepreneurial potential. California Management Review, 13(3), 32–38. https://doi.org/10.2307/41164291.

Pauli, U., & Osowska, R. (2019). Building entrepreneurial potential abroad–exploring return migrant experience. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 25(5), 936–954. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-02-2018-0098.

Pfeifer, S., Šarlija, N., & Zekić Sušac, M. (2016). Shaping the entrepreneurial mindset: Entrepreneurial intentions of business students in Croatia. Journal of Small Business Management, 54(1), 102–117. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12133.

Pinheiro, G. T., Moraes, G. H. S. M. D., & Fischer, B. B. (2023). Student entrepreneurship and perceptions on social norms and university environment: Evidence from a developing country. Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies, 15(4), 746–765. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEEE-03-2021-0121.

Raab, G., Stedham, Y., & Neuner, M. (2005). Entrepreneurial potential: An exploratory study of business students in the US and Germany. Journal of Business & Management, 11(2), 71–88. https://doi.org/10.1504/JBM.2005.141135.

Rajković, J., Poštin, J., Konjikušić, M., Rusić, A. J., Stojković, H. S., & Nikolić, M. (2021). The enterprise potential, individual entrepreneurial orientation and entrepreneurial intentions of students in Serbia. The European Journal of Applied Economics, 18(1), 106–125. https://doi.org/10.5937/EJAE18-27707.

Rhodes, M. (1961). An analysis of creativity. The Phi Delta Kappan, 42(7), 305–310. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20342603.

Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 80(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0092976.

Saeed, S., Yousafzai, S. Y., Yani-De-Soriano, M., & Muffatto, M. (2015). The role of perceived university support in the formation of students' entrepreneurial intention. Journal of Small Business Management, 53(4), 1127–1145. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12090.

Saif, H. A., & Ghania, U. (2020). Need for achievement as a predictor of entrepreneurial behavior: The mediating role of entrepreneurial passion for founding and entrepreneurial interest. International Review of Management and Marketing, 10(1), 40–53. https://doi.org/10.32479/irmm.8949.

Salamzadeh, A., Farjadian, A. A., Amirabadi, M., & Modarresi, M. (2014). Entrepreneurial characteristics: Insights from undergraduate students in Iran. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 21(2), 165–182. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJESB.2014.059471.

Samer Ali, A. S., & Rashid, A. A. (2024). The influencing factors of personality that affect entrepreneurship development among people with disabilities. Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and Places in the Global Economy, 18(3), 576–600. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEC-09-2022-0138.

Sánchez-López, A. M., & Pedraza, S. (2020). The resourceful academic-entrepreneur: How to build entrepreneurial potential with a limited budget. Advances in Engineering Education, 1–17.

Sanetra-Półgrabi, S. (2017). Entrepreneurship as a multifaceted factor of development in the border areas. In A. Sapiński, S. Ciupka, & I. Khlobystov (Eds.), Human resources management – interdisciplinary perspective (pp. 53–69). Odesa: Institute of Creative Technologies.

Santos, S. C., Caetano, A., & Curral, L. (2013). Psychosocial aspects of entrepreneurial potential. Journal of Small Business & Entrepreneurship, 26(6), 661–685. https://doi.org/10.1080/08276331.2014.892313.

Schjoedt, L., & Shaver, K. G. (2012). Development and validation of a locus of control scale for the entrepreneurship domain. Small Business Economics, 39, 713–726. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-011-9357-0.

Schuler, H., & Prochaska, M. (2000). Leistungsmotivationsinventar (LMI). Göttingen: Hogrefe.

Schumpeter, J. A. (2004). The theory of economic development. New Brunswick & London: Transaction Publishers.

Sexton, D. L., & Bowman, N. (1983). Determining entrepreneurial potential of students. In Academy of Management Proceedings (Vol. 1983, No. 1, pp. 408–412). Briarcliff Manor, New York: Academy of Management. https://doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.1983.4976385.

Shane, S. A. (2003). A general theory of entrepreneurship: The individual-opportunity nexus. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.

Shapero, A., & Sokol, L. (1982). The social dimensions of entrepreneurship. In C. A. Kent, D. L. Sexton, & K. H. Vesper (Eds.), Encyclopedia of entrepreneurship (pp. 72–90). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

Stewart Jr, W. H., & Roth, P. L. (2001). Risk propensity differences between entrepreneurs and managers: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(1), 145–153. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.145.

Swarupa, S. G., & Goyal, R. K. (2020). Entrepreneurial intentions of students: Review of academic literature. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 11(1), 1146–1168. https://doi.org/10.14299/ijser.2020.01.02.

Teixeira, A. A. (2008). Entrepreneurial potential in chemistry and pharmacy: Results from a large survey. Journal of Business Chemistry, 5(2), 48–63.

Thompson, J. L. (2004). The facets of the entrepreneur: Identifying entrepreneurial potential. Management Decision, 42(2), 243–258. https://doi.org/10.1108/00251740410515861.

Touré-Tillery, M., & Fishbach, A. (2014). How to measure motivation: A guide for the experimental social psychologist. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 8(7), 328–341. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12110.

Trojak, M., Hojda, P., & Roszkowska, S. (2023). Study-related determinants of university graduates’ entrepreneurship. International Entrepreneurship Review, 9(2), 49–60. https://doi.org/10.15678/IER.2023.0902.04.

Turker, D., & Selcuk, S. S. (2009). Which factors affect entrepreneurial intention of university students? Journal of European Industrial Training, 33(2), 142–159. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090590910939049.

Varamäki, E., Joensuu, S., Tornikoski, E., & Viljamaa, A. (2015). The development of entrepreneurial potential among higher education students. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 22(3), 563–589. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSBED-02-2012-0027.

Virk, N., & Gambhir, J. (2024). The role of education in fostering entrepreneurial mindset. In S. Salman & A. Bhaumik (Eds.), New practices for entrepreneurship innovation (pp. 25–43). New York: IGI Global Scientific Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3693-5426-1.ch002.

Wach, D., Gorgievski, M., & Wegge, J. (2017). Entrepreneurs’ subjective assessment of success: Development of a multifaceted measure. In Academy of Management Proceedings (No. 1, p. 15063). https://doi.org/10.5465/AMBPP.2017.15063abstract.

Wang, J., Cui, R., Stolarz-Fantino, S., Fantino, E., & Liu, X. (2022). Differences in mood, optimism, and risk-taking behavior between American and Chinese college students. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.781609.

Ward, A., Hernández-Sánchez, B. R., & Sánchez-García, J. C. (2019). Entrepreneurial potential and gender effects: The role of personality traits in university students’ entrepreneurial intentions. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02700.

Wickelgren, W. A. (1977). Speed-accuracy tradeoff and information processing dynamics. Acta Psychologica, 41, 67–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-6918(77)90012-9.

Wijaya, N. H. S., & Gracia, M. (2024). An empirical investigation of internal locus of control, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, entrepreneurial education, and entrepreneurial intention. International Research Journal of Economics and Management Studies IRJEMS, 3(8), 188–195. https://doi.org/10.56472/25835238/IRJEMS-V3I8P123.

Wilson, K. E. (2008). Chapter 5. Entrepreneurship education in Europe. In Entrepreneurship and Higher Education. Paris: OECD.

Wong, W. K., Cheung, H. M., & Venuvinod, P. K. (2005). Individual entrepreneurial characteristics and entrepreneurial success potential. International Journal of Innovation and Technology Management, 2(03), 277–292. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0219877005000502.

Yan, J. (2010). The impact of entrepreneurial personality traits on perception of new venture opportunity. New England Journal of Entrepreneurship, 13(2), 21–35. https://doi.org/10.1108/NEJE-13-02-2010-B002.

Yordanova, D. I., & Alexandrova‐Boshnakova, M. I. (2011). Gender effects on risk‐taking of entrepreneurs: Evidence from Bulgaria. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 17(3), 272–295. https://doi.org/10.1108/13552551111130718.

Zeffane, R. (2013). Need for achievement, personality and entrepreneurial potential: A study of young adults in the United Arab Emirates. Journal of Enterprising Culture, 21(01), 75–105. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0218495813500040.

Zhang, P., Wang, D. D., & Owen, C. L. (2015). A study of entrepreneurial intention of university students. Entrepreneurship Research Journal, 5(1), 61–82. https://doi.org/10.1515/erj-2014-0004.

Zhang, X., Chen, Y., Xu, Y., Yue, W., & Tang, C. (2023). Does regional cooperation constrain urban sprawl? Evidence from the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area. Landscape and Urban Planning, 235, Article 104742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2023.104742.

Zhao, H., & Seibert, S. E. (2006). The big five personality dimensions and entrepreneurial status: A meta-analytical review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(2), 259–271. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.2.259.